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._._TED' STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN, 1915. NO. 37 - - - - - . WHOLE NUMBER 664 



SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS 



BY 



JAMES MAHONEY 



SPECIAL COLLABORATOR. HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT 
SOUTH BOSTON HIGH SCHOOL. BOSTON. MASS. 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

BULLETIN, 1915, NO. 37 - - - - - . WHOLE NUMBER 664 



SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS 



BY 



JAMES MAHONEY 



SPECIAL COLLABORATOR, HEAD OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT 
SOUTH BOSTON HIGH SCHOOL, BOSTON. MASS. 




WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 



1915 

Moncrgraph 






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OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 

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B." OF 
OCT 2! 



.f4 






CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Letter of transmittal 4 

Introduction 5 

A Swiss survey. .• 6 

English surveys 6 

Belgian surveys 17 

Scotch surveys 23 

Irish surveys 23 

German and Austrian surveys 24 

A French survey 27 

A survey of New South Wales 28 

A Swedish survey 29 

A New Zealand survey 30 

A Canadian survey 31 

3 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Education, 
Washington, September 10, 1915. 
Sir: The large sums paid for education in the United States, the 
large proportion of the population enrolled in public schools of lower 
or higher grade, the feeling that the public welfare and private weal 
alike depend upon the efficiency of the schools, the demand that at 
least all schools supported by public taxation shall be constantly 
remodeled and readjusted to meet the needs of modern life, and the 
keener spirit of criticism produced by a more general study of the 
principles and methods of education, have all contributed to the 
interest in educational surveys of State, county, and city school sys- 
tems and surveys of individual institutions of higher learning. 
Between 40 and 50 such surveys, more or less formal, have been 
made in this country within the last few years, and many others have 
been planned. Like everything connected with public education, 
the principles of the survey are universal. Wherever made, the 
legitimate purpose of the survey is to bring about a more economic 
use of money and equipment and a better adaptation of educational 
agencies to educational needs. Therefore, educational surveys and 
investigations in other countries have a vital interest for students 
of education and education officers in this country. For this reason 
I requested Mr. James Mahoney, head of the English department in 
the South Boston High School, Boston, Mass., "and a special col- 
laborator in this bureau, to prepare a brief account of some of the 
more important foreign surveys. This he has done with much care 
and with such thoroughness as the available material would permit, 
and has embodied the results in the aocompanying manuscript. I 
recommend that the manuscript be published as a bulletin of the 
Bureau of Education. 

Respectfully submitted. 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner. 
The Secretary of the Interior. 



SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 



The educational surveys of which some account is given in the fol- 
lowing pages do not by any means represent all the foreign investiga- 
tions that have been made; it is believed, however, that they will 
serve to acquaint American students of education with certain foreign 
types, and at the same time throw some light on the history of surveys 
and of progress in education. 

Foreign surveys differ from the American in point of authorization 
in that (a) practically all are made under Government auspices, (b) 
and the work is done either by (1) a royal commission, (2) a select 
parliamentary committee, or (3) under the direction of a minister of 
education. The findings of the commissions, accordingly, carry with 
them the weight of Government authority : In the schools they are 
conclusive; and by the general public they are received with 
deference. 

The scope of the foreign survey is, in general, wider; it looks less 
to local conditions than the American survey. The method of the 
European survey is (a) by oral testimony of school directors, in- 
spectors, and others who have knowledge of schools; (b) personal 
investigation of the schools by recognized experts; (c) by circular 
letters or questionnaires (1) to all persons directly concerned with the 
schools in question, (2) to eminent men competent to judge of educa- 
tional matters; (d) through personal investigation of schools resem- 
bling those under investigation in all the other progressive nations. 

Even a slight examination of these reports will reveal the reason 
for the governmental interest in surveys; namely, international 
industrial competition, and the disclosure of the fact that indus- 
trial progress is dependent upon education. It is interesting in this 
connection to note that the American survey movement, and the 
efforts to reorganize American schools in industrial and vocational 
ways, are coincident with a realization by the people of the United 
States of the wonderful progress made by Germany in vocational 
education, and her consequent advance in international industry and 
commerce. 

The foreign surveys contain little special advocacy of the older or 
of the newer type of education. They show a remarkable balance 
of judgment. Those who have directed foreign surveys have, indeed, 
insisted that the children of the great masses of the people, girls 

5 



6 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

as well as boys, shall receive such training as will enable them 
to earn then daily bread and do their share of the nation's in- 
dustrial w^ork; but they also insist that the children be trained in 
those moral, social, and civic virtues which make a nation truly great, 
i. e., they must receive general as well as specific education; and that 
true culture must guide and balance vocational skill, which, reduced 
to its lowest terms, leads to selfish individualism, not to national 
greatness. 

A SWISS SURVEY. 

Schul-Enquete. Ph. A. Stapfer, Helvetische Minister der Kiinste 
und Wissenschaften, 1799. Bundesarchiv, Abteilung Helvetik, 
Bern (Bde. 1470, 1471, 1472). 

This survey was made in accordance with a decree of the Helvetian 
Directory of May 2, 1798, which directed Minister Stapfer to reor- 
ganize the school system. In order that he might attempt this wisely, 
he desired to know the facts regarding the different cantonal school 
arrangements. The most noteworthy answer to the questionnaire 
sent out by Minister Stapfer referred to the need of greater appro- 
priations for the schools. 

ENGLISH SURVEYS. 

The more decentralized the school administration, the more 
necessary is the educational survey in the American sense of that 
term; so England, with the most decentralized series of schools — 
one could hardly speak of an educational system in England, at least 
until recent years — should have had more surveys than any other 
European country. During the years 1861-1869, for example, 
years during which very few surveys were made elsewhere, the 
following English surveys were made: 

I. Surveys by select committees: 

(a) Report from the select committee appointed to inquire how the education 
of destitute and neglected children may be most efficiently and econom- 
ically assisted by any public funds, 1861. 

(6) Report into the constitution of the Committee of Council on Education, 
and the system under which the business of the office is conducted ; and 
also into the best mode of extending the benefits of Government inspec- 
tion and the parliamentary grants to schools at present unassisted by 
the State, 1865. 

(c) Report by same committee for following year, 1866. 

(d) Report from select committee on the Endowed Schools Bill, 1868-69. 

(e) Report into the practice of the Committee of Council on Education with 

respect to the reports of Her Majesty's inspectors of schools, 1864. 

(/) Report from committee into the constitution and working and into the suc- 
cess of the schools of art, 1864. 

(g) Report in regard to provisions for giving instruction in theoretical and applied 
science to the industrial classes, 1867-68. 



ENGLISH SURVEYS. 7 

II. Reports of commissioners: 

(a) In regard to the state of popular education, for the purpose of obtaining 
information as to the state and progress of education in dissenters' schools, 
1861. 

(6) Report in regard to state of popular education in England, 1861. 

(c) Report in regard to certain colleges and schools, as to their revenues and 

management, the studies pursued, and the instruction given therein. 

(d) Schools inquiry report (described more fully below) to inquire into the 

education given in schools in England, not comprised within Her Majesty's 
two recent commissions on popular education and on public schools, 
1867-68. 

The following are among the more noteworthy of the English sur- 
veys; it will be observed that England has been especially fortunate 
in securing the services of her ablest public men on her educational 
commissions and in generally having as chairman the ablest and most 
eminent man of the realm. 

Report from the Select Committee on the Education of the Lower 
Orders, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 
March 17, 1818. 2 vols.; vol. 1 — 324 pages; vol. 2 — 495 pages. 

Testimony was taken by the committee, with Henry Brougham 
in the chair; and circular letters (questionnaires) were also sent out, 
especially to clergymen, concerning which the committee writes: 

It is impossible to bestow too much commendation upon the alacrity shown by these 
reverend persons in complying with this requisition and the honest zeal which they 
displayed to promote the great object of universal education. 

The results showed that the condition of the education of the 
poor was very bad; new schools ought to be built for all the children, 
not for those belonging to the established church alone. In this sur- 
vey the concern manifested is for buildings and teachers, and indus- 
trial education is not taken up. This fact is not surprising in view 
of the terrible drain on English resources from the long wars with 
Napoleon. 

Report from the Select Committee on the State of Education, ordered 
by the House of Commons to be printed, August 7, 1834. (257 
pages.) 

Lord John Russell presided at the hearings of this committee. 
Some of the recommendations are : 

Habits of labor should be encouraged among the children in the rural districts in 
conjunction with the study of reading and writing; the Government should provide 
better books; corporal punishment is permissible in cases of violation of good morals, 
but emulation is the best mode of instruction; system of payment by children for edu- 
cation is decidedly preferable to gratuitous instruction; the education clauses in the 
factory acts are a dead letter, because of an insufficient number of schools. 

Germans coming to England are generally better educated than Englishmen of the 
same grade; introduction of works of industry would be in the highest degree bene- 

1173°— 15 2 



8 SOME FOEEIGN EDUCATIONAL SUBVEYS. 

ficial in tho country and town; children learn better when employed partially in 
industry than when employed solely in the school ; Dr. Bell 's plan for uniting industry 
with education has great advantage; for example, in printing, rope making, gar- 
dening, etc. 

Children in the manufacturing districts of Lancashire and Cheshire are better taught 
than those in agricultural districts. Music has value as part of popular instruction; 
and the Government should assist in establishing libraries. 

Attention is called to the fact that these recommendations were 
made in 1834. 

Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the State of 
Popular Education in England, presented to both Houses of 
Parliament by Command of Her Majesty, London, 1861. 6 
parts: Part 1 — 707 pages; part 2 — 634 pages; part 3 — 598 
pages; part 4 — 414 pages; part 5 — 473 pages; part 6 — 613 pages. 

This extensive report of the commission (presided over by the Duke 
of Newcastle) furnishes an account of the education of the independent 
poor, of pauper children, of vagrants and criminals. 

Considerable attention is given to the industrial education, which 
was provided for the poorest classes. 

Report from the Select Committee on the Education of Destitute 
Children, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 
July 23, 1861, pp. XVIII + 234 + Index, 38. 

Consists chiefly of testimony of persons having knowledge of those 
schools, given before the select committee, with Sir Stafford North- 
cote in the chair. The f ollowhig extracts will give an idea of the way 
the proceedings were conducted: 

Mr. Lock being examined : 

Q. You are the honorary secretary of the Ragged School Union? 

A. Yes; I have been so since the foundation of the society, in 1844. 

Q. Will you tell us shortly what the Ragged School Union is? 

A. The society was formed in 1844 for the encouragement and support of ragged schools 
for the outcast and destitute poor of London. 

Q. Is it confined to London? 

A. It is confined to London. 

Q. And it is confined to ragged schools? 

A. To ragged schools for those who have no other means of getting any education. 

Q. Does it include refugees? 

A. We have 16 refugees in connection with us at present. 

# * ■* * * * * 

Q. Will you tell us for what class of children these schools are intended? 

A. For a very large class of children in London who are not paupers or criminals; 
they are the children of costermongers who sell in the streets and at stalls, fruit, 
vegetables, etc., or of those who go with barrows about the street; they are the 
children of brickmakers, a large class about Nottinghill and elsewhere; of pig 
feeders, persons earning a good deal of money but altogether careless about 
the education of their children; the children of rag dealers and Spitalfield 
weavers out of employment; and many others of uncertain occupations, who are 



ENGLISH SURVEYS. 9 

in a dreadful state during the winter months; sometimes the children of laborers 
who are out of work in frost or bad weather, or who are thrown out of work at 
the docks frequently by ships not arriving; the children of knackers and cats' 
meat men; of slop tailors, who form a large number, who earn a bare subsist- 
ence, and who will not condescend to accept parochial relief; the children of 
washerwomen, who go out to work in the daytime, neglecting their children. 
******* 

Q. Have you any kind of information as to the attendance of the children at the 

Bchools? 
A. Each local committee and teacher keeps a record. 
Q. What steps are taken in regard to cleanliness? 
A. Most schools have washing places attached to them. 

******* 

Q. Are many of those schools schools in which industrial training is given? 

A. We have a considerable number of our schools with industrial classes. 

Q. How many? 

A. The children in the industrial classes are 3,780. 

Q. Are there a considerable number of schools in which there is no industrial train- 
ing at all? 

A. Yes; we are anxious to have industrial classes attached to all the schools. 

Q. Do you understand that it is necessary for a ragged school to educate industrially 
every child in it in order to entitle it to a Government grant? 

A. No; I do not understand that. 

******* 

Q. Then, in selecting your teachers you look rather to a man's moral qualities than 
to the amount of actual school training which he has had? 

A. Yes. 

Q. The great object which you have with those children is to educate their char- 
acter, to form in them habits of order and discipline and to incite in them a 
love of instruction, is it not? 

A. Quite so. 

Q. Would you consider that your schools were doing their work properly if they did 
not teach reading, writing, and arithmetic? 

A. Certainly not. 

So the examination proceeded, experts being called, examined, 
and cross-questioned in regard to the work with which they were 
familiar in Liverpool, Manchester, Bristol, Aberdeen, and Edin- 
burgh, as well as in London. Papers of recommendation in regard 
to points raised in the oral examinations are also given; e. g., Ralf 
R. W. Lingen, in a paper on Aid to Ragged Schools, writes: 

The industrial training given in ragged schools, which is a most important part of 
their system, tends to form habits of industry rather than to teach a trade. 

A letter from C. Ferguson, of Edinburgh, recommends that the 
ragged school — 

should be thoroughly industrial in its character, and, as far as possible, trades taught 
that the children could follow out and earn an honest livelihood by, in after life. 
Poor children may receive a good moral and commercial education, but this is not suf- 
ficient to qualify them for being able to support themselves afterwards. They may 
receive both, and on leaving school may have only three courses open to them — to 
beg, to steal, or to starve. The moral and industrial training are essential. 



10 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

It is noteworthy that advanced ideas of instruction were tried out 
first on the children of the very poor, presumably because their 
parents would not object. 

A minute of the Committee of Council of Education is to the effect 
that no aid should be given to the ragged schools unless they were 
industrial in character. 

Schools Inquiry Commission, Report of the Commissioners, pre- 
sented to Parliament, London, 1869. 
4 vols: Vol. 1 — 661 pages + 192, Appendix. 

Vol. 2 — 842 pages. 

Vol. 3 — 872 pages. 

Vol. 4 — 1,034 pages. 

The letters patent of Queen Victoria, authorizing this survey, were 
issued June 30, 1864, to a commission of 12 persons, among them 
Lord Stanley, Sir Henry Northcote, and Baron Lyttelton. 

They were authorized to inquire into the " State of popular educa- 
tion in England, and to consider and report what measures, if any, 
were required for the extension of sound and cheap elementary 
instruction to all classes of the people." 

After an examination of the systems of New England, upper Canada, 
Scotland, France, Prussia, and Switzerland, the commissioners as well 
as those of England report on the kinds of education that are desirable 
for England. The facts regarding the secondary schools are stated; 
the girls' schools, with their defects, noted; and then general recom- 
mendations, especially for endowed schools, are made. The method 
of inquiry was by oral testimony; by questionnaires addressed to the 
authorities of the different schools ; by the personal investigations of 
assistant commissioners; and by questionnaires addressed to persons 
of eminence in education. 

The occasion for the survey is clearly indicated in the following 
words : 

Our chairman having communicated to us a letter from Dr. Lyon Playfair, stating 
that the Industrial Exhibition at Paris in 1867 furnished evidence of a decline in the 
superiority of certain branches of English manufacture over those of other nations, and 
that, in his opinion, this decline was partly due to a want of technical education in 
England, we proceeded to ascertain whether this opinion was held by other competent 
observers. Finding that the opinion was general, we thought it right to report at once 
to Your Majesty the communications we had received on the subject, as the prosecution 
of an inquiry into technical education itself appeared to be beyond our province. 

The German Volkschule, Realschule, Bilrgerschule, and Gymnasia 
are highly praised, while the English schools for the lower middle and 
working classes are condemned. 

"We think classics good, but other things indispensable; and they 
want the classics either to make room beside themselves or to give 



ENGLISH SURVEYS. 11 

way altogether," is a statement which gives a key to the underlying 
thought in the minds of the commissioners. This opinion is further 
impressed by the following words of Assistant Commissioner Fearon : 

Among the mercantile classes in London, that is to say, the tradesmen, shopkeepers, 
and all who live by trade, I find a great desire for less instruction in classics and more 
thorough teaching in modern subjects. This feeling is growing and spreading so much 
among the mercantile and trading classes that I have been assured by several men of 
business that few things would please them better than a successful attack upon 
classical studies. 

Although the surveyors say that it must not be supposed that this 
opinion is universal, they mention the fact that the parents compelled 
most of the grammar schools of Lancashire to abandon or greatly 
reduce classical teaching, and cite Mr. Bryce as authority for the 
statement. 

First Report of the Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction, 
presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her 
Majesty, London, 1882, 62 pages. 

This is a preliminary report and relates chiefly to the results of the 
study of industrial training in France. 

The commissioners are not quite prepared to advocate for England 
a system of apprenticeship schools till they have had a longer period 
of trial abroad; they advise, however, the introduction of manual 
work into some of the ordinary elementary schools ; they praise very 
highly the efforts of the French to instruct their entire working popu- 
lation. For adult instruction they recommend courses of free public 
lectures. 

Second Report of the Royal Commissioners on Technical Education, 
presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her 
Majesty, London, 1884: 2 vols: vol. 1 — 557 pages; vol. 2—442 
pages + 92. 

Having investigated conditions in regard to technical instruction 
in France, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Holland, and 
Italy, as well as in the various parts of the United Kingdom, the 
commissioners express their astonishment at the extraordinary 
industrial progress of France, Germany, Belgium, and Switzerland. 
Much of this progress, it was declared, was due to advance in organic 
chemistry, notably in Germany; but new kinds of electrical machinery 
and new methods in mining, bridge building, and in the making of 
yarns, fabrics, and silk goods claim attention. While of the opinion 
that England still maintains her lead in the world of industry, the 
commissioners note with concern the growth of technical education 
abroad ; the multiplication of polytechnic schools, technical schools for 



12 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

workmen, secondary technical schools in Prussia; of weaving schools, 
schools for miners, continuation schools (in north Germany) ; special 
schools established by manufacturers and large employers of labor; 
and they conclude that if England is to continue to be the industrial 
leader, her managers, foremen, and workmen should combine theo- 
retical instruction with their acknowledged practical skill. 

They accordingly recommend a system of thoroughgoing technical 
education with a scientific basis and with abundant opportunity for 
practical application of theoretical knowledge. 

Royal Commission on Secondary Education, Published, London, 
1895, 9 vols., presented in Parliament by command of Her 
Majesty. 

The commission was presided over by James Bryce, and in it with 
him were many other distinguished persons, among them the fol- 
lowing: Sir John Tomlinson Hibbert, Edward Lyttleton, Sir Henry 
Enfield Roscoe, Richard Claverhouse Jebb, Henry Hobhouse, 
Michael Ernest Sadler, Hubert Llewellyn Smith, Lucy Caroline 
Cavendish, and Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick. 

The commissioners concerned themselves especially with the subject 
of organization of secondary schools, not, for example, with an 
account of the instruction as given, or what subjects it should cover, 
or by what methods. 

So the task was to examine into (a) the various kinds of secondary 
schools; (b) what relations they bear to one another; (c) what 
authorities manage them; (d) what funds they receive; (e) to what 
extent they meet the needs of the different classes of the community, 
noting especially the (1) defects in organization and (2) what further 
sources of income may be available for them. 
Recommendations oftlie commission: 

I. A central State authority over secondary education should be 
established, viz, a department with a minister responsible to 
Parliament. 
II. Proper local authorities should be constituted, to avoid friction, 
duplication, etc. 

III. Arrangements should be made for the better organizing of 

schools, scholarships, examinations, etc. 

IV. Financial provision. 

V. Preparation and registration of teachers. 

In regard to industrial and technical education, the report of the 
commission calls attention to the fact that these topics were taken up 
by a royal commission * in 1884, and that this commission secured the 
levying of a rate (1 penny in the pound) for such education; the 

1 See preceding page. 



ENGLISH STJEVEYS. 13 

small funds thus secured were insufficient to accomplish much, but 
the Local Taxation Act of 1890 provided further funds for the same 
purpose, so that something was accomplished for technical education. 

The classical languages are taught more extensively than ever, but less as if they 
were dead, and more as if they still lived, rich in all those humanities by virtue of 
which they have been the supreme instruments of the higher culture. And they do 
not now stand alone. 

The report adds that modern languages and literatures and physical 
science are also included, and continues — 

The idea of technical instruction as the means for the training of citizens capable 
of producing or distributing wealth has taken hold, though in varying degrees of intel- 
ligence and intensity, both of our old borough councils and of our new county coun- 
cils, and hence has come a concern for that kind of education which we might other- 
wise have looked for in vain. In a word, we have two excellent things, an enlarged 
education and a wider and more intelligent interest in it. 

The attention given by the report to the topics of science, agricul- 
ture, continuation schools, and technical institutes indicates that 
those topics were clearly in the minds of the commissioners in their 
recommendations for a reorganization of the entire school system 
for the sake of efficiency. 

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and Board of Education. Report 
of the Royal Education Conference, Henry Hobhouse, chair- 
man, County Staffs of Instructors in Agricultural Subjects, 
London, 1910 (9 pages). 

In answer to a question proposed by Sir Robert Morant, July 29, 
1910— 

Should each county have its own staff of instructors in agriculture, horticulture, etc., 
or could a single staff be made available for groups of contiguous counties? 

The fact is that the great majority of the counties have their own 
staffs; but in the cases where the counties have none, they should 
associate with other counties having staffs. 

The minimum staff should consist of — 

(a) An agricultural organizer and adviser who should supervise 
the work of the county. 

(b) A horticultural instructor who should give courses of instruc- 
tion at approved centers. 

(c) In most counties, a dairying instructor. 
This minimum staff should be supplemented by — 

(a) Investigators and analysts. 

(b) Farriers, poultry experts, etc. 

(c) Foresters. 

(d) Organizers in the economics of agriculture, e. g., cooperation 
and credit banks. These inspectors and experts should have a most 
thorough practical as well as theoretical training. 



14 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

SURVEYS BY MICHAEL E. SADLER. 

Of special importance in any consideration of the survey move- 
ment are the surveys by Prof. Michael E. Sadler. The following are 
typical examples of what in some respects may be considered the 
best educational survey work ever done : 

Survey of the City of Sheffield, by Michael E. Sadler, published, 
London, 1903 (45 pages). Secondary and Higher Education. 

(a) Aims to be kept in view. 

(b) Strong and weak points in present system. 

(c) Recommendations: English, classics, mathematics, science, 
manual training, school games, preparation for technical school at 16 
years. 

(d) Cost. 

In the keen competition of modern days, industry and commerce make ever-growing 
demands on the scientific ability, the ready knowledge, the resourcefulness, and the 
foresight of men of business. 

The citizens of Sheffield can provide for this need by a new system 
of schools, i. e., by completing, unifying, and strengthening the pres- 
ent system. Science has revolutionized modern life and must have 
its proper recognition in the schools. Besides, the teachers must 
have adequate training. Their classes must not be too large, and 
they must not have too much hack-work and routine. 

The chief difficulty, according to the survey, will be found in 
making out the right course of study. In spite of its initial expense 
a liberal secondary education should be crowned with technical and 
professional training. Such a system is as necessary to a progressive 
city as a first-rate water supply, a good tramway system, electric 
lighting and power, municipal buildings, and the like. An effort 
must be made to secure for all the boys and girls in Sheffield the best 
possible training for their powers ; it is also necessary to keep steadily 
in mind the industrial and commercial life of the city, without over- 
looking the needs of those who are to enter the professional callings. 

Elementary school pupils who are to receive a secondary education 
should be transferred not later than the age of 12 to the secondary 
school, in the opinion of the surveyor, and there the course should 
vary in length and in type according to the occupation which the child 
expects to follow. The minimum course should extend from 12 to 16; 
and for the professions and the higher posts in business, to 17, 18, or 
19. Power of expression should be cultivated. But the children 
should not attempt to take too many subjects at the same time. 
Smattering is mischievous. Besides, the aptitudes of children vary 
as greatly as the occupations. What we need is a clearing up of 
aims. 



ENGLISH SURVEYS. 15 

As for higher institutions, says the report, Sheffield is better 
equipped, but an effort should be made to add to the resources of 
these, and a wider use should be made of such institutions as the 
technical school of art, the school of cookery, the evening classes, the 
museums, art galleries, and libraries. The great "importance of the 
technical school consists in its close bearing on the primary industries 
of Sheffield, which are": 

(a) Metallurgical — (1) Steel manufacture, (2) iron, (3) other 
metals, e. g., silver. 

(b) Engineering — (1) Mechanical, (2) electrical, (3) civil, (4) 
mining. 

(c) Cutlery, including silver plate. 

Survey of the City of Liverpool, M. E. Sadler, 1904, London (230 
pages). Secondary Education and Training of Teachers. 

Considers the backward condition of the schools and the causes 
of it — lack of funds, lack of attention; better training for teachers; 
the need for better secondary schools is great; when obtained, they 
could supply students for the municipal schools of art; for the school 
of commerce ; for the training school of cookery, etc. ; for the evening 
school, continuation classes, etc.; improvement in secondary edu- 
cation could be brought about by (a) better corps of teachers, (b) 
better courses, and (c) better supervision. 

In this survey, Dr. Sadler states what the present educational condi- 
tion is, what its defects are, and where and how improvement may be 
brought about, with an eye to the city's needs. These needs are 
extraordinary, and the defects in education are so great that vigorous 
effort must be made to provide proper training for the youth who 
must carry on the business of one of the great commercial cities of 
the world. Especial attention is given to the Municipal School of Art ; 
the school of commerce; the schools of domestic science; the central 
technical school, and the evening continuation schools and technical 
classes; but he insists that the business future of the city depends 
on raising the intellectual standard of the secondary schools. 

The course of study in the secondary schools should be carefully 
adapted to the special needs of Liverpool. The humanities should 
be given an important place, but English should be efficiently taught ; 
mathematics, general science, geography, history, French, Latin, 
manual instruction, and drawing should receive very careful atten- 
tion; and every boy should go through a carefully graded course of 
physical exercise. 

Survey of County Borough of Huddersfield, by Michael E. Sadler. 
Published, London, 1904 (127 pages). 

Secondary and technical education are the general topics. " Pru- 
dent liberality" is needed, as well as "practical wisdom." A first- 
1173°— 15 3 



16 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

rate public high school for girls should be provided. The technical 
college ought to do two things (a) further staple trade of the town, 
(b) train teachers. A s3 T stem of scholarships should be established. 
Teachers should be given a chance for higher culture. It is necessary 
to reorganize the evening continuation schools and bring them into 
closer connection with the local industries; to establish an evening 
school of domestic science; to establish an evening school of com- 
merce; to reduce size of the classes; to issue a " Directory/' i. e., a 
yearly report, to keep the public informed. 

Survey by Michael E. Sadler, County Borough of Birkenhead. Pub- 
lished, London, 1904 (131 pages). 

This survey treats chiefly of secondary education. It points out 
that the deficiencies of the secondary schools are due to lack of funds. 
The way to improve the quality is to break down the barrier between 
elementary and secondary education by raising secondary schools to 
"a higher plane of intellectual efficiency"; for this there is need of 
competent teachers. Besides, provision is needed for courses of con- 
nected subjects for evening continuation classes in (a) liberal educa- 
tion, (b) manual training, (c) home occupations, (d) commercial 
instruction, (e) technical and industrial classes. 

Survey of City and County of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, by Michael E. 
Sadler. Published at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1905 (89 pages), 
Secondary and Higher Education. 

Yet is there not a danger lest, as has happened more than once before in our educa- 
tional history, we should attach too little importance to the humanities in education 
and too much importance to what is material and apparently capable of yielding 
direct profit? 

I. Sadler finds that there are eight systems of secondary schools 
and that they are making some progress. 

II. That there are in Newcastle three types of secondary schools, 
namely, for those — 

(a) leaving school when 18 or 19 years old; 

(b) leaving school when 16 or 17 years old; 

(c) leaving school when 15 years old. 

III. Too little attention has been paid in England to pupils of the 
third class (c). (1) Two schools for such ought to be established in 
Newcastle. (2) The course of study for such should be general for 
two years (12-14), but vocational during last year of attendance. 
(3) The classes should not contain more than 30 pupils each. (4) 
More funds ought to be provided. (5) More pupil-teacher centers 
should be established. (6) Evening classes should be graded. (7) 
An industrial museum should be established. (S) A teachers' 



•BELGIAN SURVEYS. 17 

council should be formed to help correlate elementary and secondary 
schools. (9) Annual reports should be published. 

Survey of Administrative County of Essex, by Michael E. Sadler. 
Published at Chelmsford, 1906, LIV + 418 pages. 

Secondary and higher education are the subjects of the investiga- 
tion. 

I. Fine work is being done by the education committee of the 
county council: (a) Establishing vigorous schools; (b) valuable ex- 
periments in coeducation; (c) scientific study of agriculture, (1) 
study of nature in elementary schools, (2) and in rural schools, (3) 
horticultural courses for teachers at the county garden; (d) county 
scholarship system, on the whole, good. 

II. As for rural schools, (1) concentration in centers should be 
sought rather than the building of new schools; (2) means for trans- 
portation of pupils for daily attendance suggested, but (3) better 
teachers are needed; and (4) small classes. 

Collectivism rather than extreme individualism is needed, if 
England is to maintain her national importance; both individual 
and public needs may be furthered by county organizations. 

Hitherto English secondary schools have been isolated in our 
education. This must no longer be so. "Trained thinking power is 
needed throughout the community." The grammar schools, hitherto 
standing alone, must form part of the secondary school system, and 
help our youth adapt themselves to our new industrial, commercial, 
administrative needs. 

BELGIAN SURVEYS. 

Etat de 1'Instruction moyenne en Belgique, 1842-1848. 

Rapport presente aux Chambres legislatives, le 20 juin 1849, par 

M. le Ministre de PInterieur, Bruxelles, 1849, E. M. Devroye 

et Comp e , pp. XLIII + 591. 

Part I. Legislation and organization: Secondary education in 
Belgium was founded and supported by the communes and the 
provinces, and has, accordingly, been administered by the com- 
munes and the provinces, the Central Government having only the 
right of supervision, though hi the case of some schools to which the 
General Government has granted subsidies the State exercises a 
certain amount of control. 

Part II gives the cost of instruction in the various secondary 
schools, including industrial schools, but not for trade schools and 
schools for apprentices; the pensions for retired instructors are in- 
cluded also. 



18 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

In the recapitulation it is explained that progress began with the 
decentralization of school control at the fall of the old government in 
1S30. Emulation has increased; supervision has become of more 
importance; and agricultural schools have been established. A list 
of 14 agricultural schools is appended. 

Regarding vocational training the following statement by Mr. 
Trasenster, inspector of studies at the School of Arts, Manufactures, 
and Mines, at Liege, is presented: 

What is the aim of instruction? Evidently the aim of instruction, and of educa- 
tion, is to prepare the child and the young man for the duties and exigencies of the 
position which he is to occupy in the world. The school should be the apprentice- 
ship for practical life. The pupil, on leaving school, should take his place in the 
social scale with the ideas and sentiments which are proper for the place which he is 
called to occupy. Such , it seems to me, is the most general idea of the aim of instruction. 

With regard to elementary instruction there is no difference of opinion; it should 
give the first notions which are essential for the simple relations of social life. 

But as soon as we take up the subject of secondary education a great divergence in 
opinion at once arises. According to many minds secondary education is merely a 
preparation for university instruction. Its only care should be to make lawyers, 
scholars, physicians; and so the study of antiquity is, above all, important; it is almost 
the only study which is the source of anxiety; it furnishes the only means of making 
one's "humanities" exactly as in the time when Latin was the sole language of 
science, when the modern tongues were still in their infancy; and, finally, when 
instruction had and could have no aim save that of forming theologians, lawyers, and 
physicians. 

But this organization, maintained to the exclusion of every other, in our age would 
constitute for three-fourths of our vocations a deplorable anachronism. Indeed, 
experience proves that the number of young people who enter the universities on 
leaving the high schools is a very small minority. Thus the average of the number 
of university graduates, who before 1835 numbered 170, has been reduced in our day 
to 85. As there are nearly 70 high schools which give training in the ancient lan- 
guages, there are less than two pupils per high school who graduate from the univer- 
sities. But more than that, the majority of pupils give up their studies after three 
years of high school. 

****** * 

A similar state of affairs exists in other countries, and notably in France. This is a 
very noticeable fact in Belgium and has caused severe criticism of the organization 
of the high schools, and justly so; nevertheless, I believe that it shows a social need of 
which we have hitherto taken too little account. For many of the children of the 
lower middle class, that class so numerous in our country and of such remarkable 
energy, artisans, little-shop keepers and the like, primary instruction is insufiicient, 
classical instruction is too extended, too burdensome, too dangerous even. Besides, 
these children must begin an apprenticeship toward the age of 14 or 15 years, and far 
from opposing the opinion of parents in this matter, one should encourage it as praise- 
worthy and respectable. 

But what happens if the father, deceived by the official favor by which the classic 
studies are exclusively surrounded, sends his son to high school? After three years 
he will probably withdraw him and have him apply himself to a vocation; and all the 
young man has learned is a little French, the Latin and Greek declensions, a little 
geography and ancient history, some purely theoretical arithmetic, incapable with 



BELGIAN SURVEYS. 19 

all this baggage of being of any use in an office, incapable of drawing a line in geometry, 
and knowing no tongue which would permit him to cross the boundaries of his own 
country. 

******* 

Everyone realizes that these shortcomings in our education exist; everywhere 
efforts are made to overcome them, for example, by creating industrial and commercial 
sections in high schools, and also, in part, by higher elementary schools (pre vocational). 
But because of the failure to have a clear consciousness of the end to be attained, no 
systematic rational plan has been followed in working out the details of school organi- 
zation. 

And first of all, in view of the facts explained above, we see the necessity of dividing 
secondary education into two well-marked divisions, the lower of which would meet 
the needs of the more numerous part of our middle class, and at the same time it 
would serve the children of those better off with a preparation for the higher division. 
In my thought, the lower division would have in view the same object as the higher 
elementary schools; but it would differ in that the instruction would be more com- 
plete than that of the actual higher elementary schools which do not lead to any 
instruction of a higher sort. On the contrary, pupils who because of their talent or 
their means should be permitted to continue their studies would find continuity 
of instruction in the higher division of the secondary schools. For this purpose it 
would be necessary to incorporate the higher elementary schools into the secondary, 
vocational school system of which it would form the first division. 

* * * * * * * 

The higher division of secondary schools would be intended for the completion of 
the general and vocational training of young people who are to enter commerce, 
industry, etc. 

The instruction in this division would have as its aim not simply to give the 
technical instruction necessary for certain callings, but also the general knowledge 
which every man should possess who is called to hold an honorable position in society 
and in the elective councils of the country. Here is a question of the first importance: 
What is the instruction which is most suitable to lead to this double end of endowing 
the country with men skilled in commerce, industry, farming, etc., and at the same 
time make sure that they are honorable men and good citizens? 

Mr. Trasenter offers the following as a curriculum: 

Languages. — The study of languages is of first importance, not in the way of science, 
but as an art. One's skill in language denotes one's psychologic development. 
Besides, other languages are necessary in gaining a fair mastery of one's mother 
tongue. But what languages should be chosen? If a student is to go on to the 
university in order to prepare himself for law or medicine, the classic languages are 
best. But if one is to enter business or industry, two modern languages should be 
chosen, English and German, though not to be commenced together; German, for 
various reasons, should be begun in the lower division of the secondary school, and 
English in the higher division. 

Arts. — Certain arts are also indispensable, and especially the art of writing legibly, 
drawing, singing, at least in chorus, and gymnastics. 

Religion. — Religious instruction is needed, but it should be taught better than it is 
at present. 

Geography and history are also necessary, but they should be graded properly be- 
tween the lower and higher division of the secondary school system. History is 
especially important, and especially the history of Belgium with its relation to gen- 
era] history is not to be overlooked. 



20 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

Mathematics. — There is no need of proving the necessity of studying mathematics, 
necessary as it is in logic as well as in all the practical affairs of life. However, the 
present method of teaching it should he radically changed. The drill in its practical 
applications should he very thorough in the lower division of the secondary school, 
and its more difficult theoretical parts reserved for the higher division. 

Bookkeeping should be thoroughly taught in the lower division of the secondary 
school, for, no matter what one's subsequent career, bookkeeping is needed. 

Commercial section.— The commercial section of the high school would include in 
special courses the union of the various kinds of special knowledge which are of 
greatest practical value, such as the various commercial operations, the elements 
of commercial legislation, the statistics of the country, political economy, and the 
elements of technology appropriate to the locality. This would usefully take the 
place of the institution which they wished to create at Antwerp under the name of a 
university of commerce. 

Industrial section. — In the industrial section it is impossible to specialize in the 
studies in such a way as to train expert mechanics. That is the aim of the special 
industrial schools. But it will be of great importance to the industries to give the 
young people the necessary preliminary knowledge, so that they will understand the 
work when they enter it. 

Now all the industries employ, simultaneously or separately, mechanical agents and 
chemical agents, and products of the soil as raw materials. It is thus necessary to 
give some elementary knowledge of the dynamic sciences, and that supposes an 
understanding of elementary mathematics and some knowledge of physics and chem- 
istry as well, the use of chemical instruments and the application of this science to 
local industries. These courses would be followed for the other two 'sections, but 
the pupils of the industrial section would be trained to make more numerous appli- 
cations. 

Descriptive geometry and design should form a part of the instruction of this sec- 
tion. I add political economy and the elements of technology, as for the pupils 
of the commercial section. "Such is the plan for vocational education such as I con- 
ceive to be useful, and at the same time possible, in Belgium." It would include 
four distinct grades of instruction: (1) Elementary schools (in all communes); 
(2) lower secondary schools (in all important centers); (3) the higher secondary 
schools (one or two, at the most, in a province); (4) special schools (military, mines, 
bridges, roads, etc.). 

An examination should be held for each of the three higher grades and a certificate 
given, which, in each case, would admit to the next higher grade, or a diploma which 
might admit to a position in the post office, or the railroad, for example. But here 
comes a question which has been much discussed, and which, in Belgium, has 
received various answers: Ought the secondary schools (i. e., the vocational) to be 
completely separated from the cultural high schools? 

What has been said in regard to purposes and studies proves that the two kinds 
of schools should be kept quite apart. This is done elsewhere, notably in Prussia, 
where the Gymnasia and the higher Biirgerschule are kept quite distinct. 

On the basis of this course, the report gives a severely critical 
examination of the schools of (1) Antwerp, (2) Bruges, (3) Brussels, 
(4) Gand, (5) Liege, (6) Mons, (7) Tournai, (8) Verviers. 

It should be noted in this connection that in March, 1849, there 
was established at Tirlemont, by royal authority, an agricultural 
school annexed to the high school, but with its administration 
entirely separate. Its course of study included French and Flemish 



BELGIAN SURVEYS; 21 

languages, elementary mathematics and geography, geometry, 
surveying, leveling, stereometry, linear design, mechanics, physics, 
meteorology, mineralogy, geology, botany, general chemistry, organic 
chemistry, agricultural technology, horticulture, agricultural zoology, 
elements of the veterinary art and hygiene, rural architecture, rural 
economy, agriculture. 

A very elaborate course was prescribed for the school of horti- 
culture. 

Agricultural schools were also established at Oudenbourg, Chimay, 
Thourout, etc., with very thorough courses of study. 

It is worthy of comment that the above progressive plan of instruc- 
tion, with its clear-cut conceptions, was presented in Belgium in 1848. 

£coles d' Agriculture, Rapport a. M. le Ministre de L'Interieur sur 
la Situation de ces Ecoles pendant l'annee scolaire 1850-1851, 
Bruxelles, 1851 (135 pages). 

The results of painstaking personal examination of the agricul- 
tural schools at Vilvorde, Tirlemont, Chimay, Leuze, Verviers 
D'Ostin, La Trapperie, Rolle, Berg-op-Zoom, Gendbuegge, and 
d'Ostadker are given; the courses of study, the methods of instruc- 
tion, the attainments of the students, their discipline and physical 
welfare are stated and suggestions for improvement are made. In 
general, the courses contain theoretical as well as practical studies, 
and much work in the gardens and on the farms is required. The 
studies and practical work last, as a rule, from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m. 

The subjects of general instruction are: Penmanship, French 
(sometimes Flemish also), arithmetic, accounting, drawing; the 
school at Tirlemont adds courses in physics, chemistry, anatomy, 
physiology, mineralogy, geology, geometry, with special regard to 
their application; the surveyor adds that the history of Belgium 
should also be given. He praises the work in horticulture and 
gardening, notes with satisfaction the attention given to fruits and 
vegetables, and remarks that the instruction at Vilvorde has con- 
sisted too exclusively of memory training. The school for the manu- 
facture of agricultural tools meets with his approval; he praises the 
conduct of the students. The poor preparation of some students 
makes it impossible for some of the pupils to progress satisfactorily 
in the work of the schools. He mentions the fact that at Leuze 
there are some young men who work during the summer on their 
parents' farms, and attend the school only during the winter months. 
In that school the pupils are divided into two classes, the first taking 
theoretical work as well as practical; the second, practical work 
only. This he finds to be a good arrangement. 



22 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

Rapport sur l'Enseignement Agricole presente aux Chambres Legis- 
latives, 1860, Bruxelles, 1863 (112 pages). 

A work sirnilar to trie preceding, but having less detail. 

Rapport sur la Situation de PEnseignement Industriel et Profes- 
sionel en Belgique, Presente aux Chambres Legislatives, le 7 
Mai, 1886, par le Ministre de V Agriculture, de ^Industrie et 
des Travaux Publics, Bruxelles, 1886 (212 pages). 

At that date Belgium had (a) 35 industrial and trade schools, (b) 45 
apprenticeship schools, (c) one school of mines (at Mons), (d) one 
higher institute of commerce at Antwerp, and also certain public 
courses. 

(a) The industrial schools are much appreciated by the working 
classes, as is shown by their rapid growth since 1879; there is doubt 
in regard to the trade schools; it costs a great deal to equip them. 
Experience alone can show their value. 

(b) The apprenticeship schools owe their origin to the fact that 
machines at the end of the eighteenth century threw many people 
out of work. In 1817, at Gand, they were first established. They 
have produced skilled workmen, raised wages, and brought in new 
industries. 

(c) The school of mines at Mons dates from 1837. It has been 
a great success; its graduates are employed not alone in the indus- 
tries of Belgium, but abroad as well. 

(d) The Higher Institute of Commerce at Antwerp was founded 
in 1852. A wide range of theoretical instruction is given, and its 
commercial bureau gives practical instruction in many branches of 
commerce. 

(e) Courses in photography, at Brussels, were organized in 1870. 
Their object was to teach the common applications of photography 
to industry, science, and art. Practical as well as theoretical lessons 
are given. 

(f) In addition, public courses (since 1826) at Brussels have been 
given; e. g., in (1) history of Belgium, (2) literature, (3) physics, (4) 
chemistry, (5) administration, (6) hygiene, (7) astronomy, (8) political 
economy, (9) botany. 

A supplement gives further detailed information especially in regard 
to industrial schools. 

Rapport sur la Situation de PEnseignement Technique en Belgique 
par M. le Ministre de PIndustrie et du Travail, 1897-1901, 2 
vols: Vol. I — 818 pages; Vol. II — 469 pages. 

This is a very elaborate report giving statistics and practical details 
in regard to the various technical schools of Belgium; stating the 
courses for girls as well as for boys, and containing practical sugges- 



scotch a:nd ikish surveys. 23 

tions for improvement. In this we see the fruit of the efforts of the 
earlier advocates of technical training. The number of technical 
schools subsidized by the Government was 579 in 1901 ; of these 348 
were vocational, housekeeping, schools for girls, and 231 were voca- 
tional, industrial, and apprenticeship schools for boys. It is impos- 
sible in a brief notice to do much more than refer to the work itself, 
a storehouse of information on a modern system of industrial educa- 
tion. 

SCOTCH SURVEYS. 

Second Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners, Appointed to Inquire 
into Schools in Scotland, Presented to Both Houses of Parlia- 
ment by Command of Her Majesty, Edinburgh, 1867, circa 
1,000 pages. 

This commission was presided over by the Duke of Argyle. 

It describes the condition of education in the lowland parishes, in 
the towns, in the Hebrides and western highlands; it gives informa- 
tion in regard to the privy council system and the revised code, attend- 
ance at school, school building, teaching and teachers, and the cost of 
education. 

The condition of education is found to be very poor; a more efficient 
system of inspection is recommended, and grants are proposed; and 
an extension of the Factory Acts is urged. 

^Third Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners Appointed to Inquire 
into the Schools in Scotland, Edinburgh, 1868, 2 parts : Part 1 — 
271 pages; part 2 — 366 pages. 

This survey appears to be a continuation of the report of 1867, and 
supplies information in regard to burgh and middle-class schools ; but 
this part contains a discussion of industrial (i. e., ragged) schools in 
which the testimony indicates that these schools are accomplishing 
much for the boys, so that u honest employment could be obtained for 
four times as many boys as could be furnished." 

IRISH SURVEYS. 

Royal Commission of Inquiry into Primary Education (Ireland), 
Report of Commissioners, Dublin, 1870, 8 vols.: Vol. 1 — 972 
pages; vol. 2 — 510 pages; vol. 3 — 776 pages; vols. 4 and 5 — 825 
pages; vol. 6 — 306 pages; vol. 7 — 556 pages; vol. 8 — 251 pages. 

The commission was presided over by the Earl of Powis. This 
survey contains a historical sketch of national education; gives the 
provisions for primary education, number of teachers, attendance of 
children, proficiency of children, and account of school buildings. 

In regard to agricultural schools it says: 

We intend that onr normal department, which we hope will he completed in January- 
next, shall consist of two departments — one for elementary, the other for scientific 



24 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

instruction; that the latter shall teach in particular those branches of science which 
have a practical application to husbandry and handicraft. 

We also purpose having a school for industry in the immediate neighborhood of 
Dublin, with workrooms, and a farm of 40 to 50 acres annexed to it; and that those 
who attend it shall be practiced at stated times in different descriptions of manual 
work and in the general business of agriculture. 

The report adds that in 1848 there was but one model farm, but 
in the following year they began to extend their agricultural system, 
three new farms being placed on their list during 1849. In 1856 there 
were 20 such farms. 

One need not be astonished at the remarkable success of Sir Horace 
Plunkett in the twentieth century, when such a good start had been 
made toward the middle of the nineteenth century. 

Vice Regal Committee of Inquiry into Primary Education in Ireland 

London, 1914, Second Report (571 pages). 
Vice Regal Committee of Inquiry into Primary Education in Ireland, 

Final Report presented to parliament, London, 1914 (52 pages). 

Duties of inspectors, rating, promotion, and salaries of teachers are 
topics that receive special treatment; attention is also given to studies 
and courses; and, under this heading, the fact appears that boys from 
the national schools are not well prepared for the courses of the tech- 
nical institutes, of which there are a dozen or more in Ireland. 

The recommendations of the board of national education are 
stated; these include a system of kindergarten schools, the idea of 
which is essential for all grades and for all teachers; hand and eye 
training; woodwork, sloyd, drawing; elementary science, with both 
object lessons and experimental courses; agricultural education, 
which should not be bookish, but should be built up on experimental 
science, viz, physics, chemistry, and biology; cookery, laundry work, 
and domestic science; needlework; singing, and physical training. 

GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN SURVEYS. 1 

Verhandlungen der Gymnasial-Enquete Commission, published by 
the Austrian Royal Minister of Education in Vienna, 1871 
(344 pages). 
Fifty of the leading directors of gymnasiums, rural school inspec- 
tors, and professors of education representative of the various do- 
minions and nationalities of the Empire, were summoned by the 
minister of education in the autumn of 1870, and the following 
problems were presented to them: 

1. How far do the preparatory classes for the gymnasia meet the needs for which 
they were established? 

i While educators of other nations have repeatedly made reports on German and Austrian schools, 
there are few reports made by Germans on German schools that are of the same type as the investiga- 
tions and surveys recorded for other countries in this bulletin. Such reports as the following are, 
however, more than studies; they are official surveys, and possibly of the best type. 



GERMAN AND AUSTRIAN SURVEYS. 25 

2. Under what conditions would the introduction of freehand drawing into the 

curriculum of the Untergymnasium be desirable? 

3. To what degree should natural science be taught in the lower classes? 

4. In what way should general nature study be made a part of the course for the 

upper classes, and how should it be regarded in the final examination? 

5. In what way can the modern languages form a part of the required course of study 

without overwork on thapart of the pupils? 

6. What can be done to bring religious instruction in the upper classes into har- 

mony with the present laws in various provinces of the Empire? 

7. How may the final examination be made to correspond to its original purpose aa 

a means of obtaining data for a formal certificate of the total cultural training 
of the graduate, without becoming a mere form, and how may the excessive 
duties of rural school inspectors be met? 

8. How may the relationship of the lower and upper classes, after the carrying out of 

the indicated reforms, be established and manifested? 

Definite, practical problems of reform are thus clearly stated to 
educational experts, and definite rational solutions are required, hav- 
ing in view, of course, school conditions as reported on the spot by 
the school authorities present in person. 

It is worth our while to see how the commission handled these 
problems, for in them are involved the topics of modern reforms in 
education, the breaking away from the classic bonds, and the intro- 
duction of science and modern languages. 

The commission was divided into three sections — the first to deal 
with questions 1, 7, and 8; the second section to discuss and report on 
questions 2, 5, and 6; and the third section to treat similarly questions 
3 and 4. 

In its session on the 30th of September, 1870, a hot discussion of 
question No. 1, brought out the statement from a Galician repre- 
sentative that the Vollcsschule should not be regarded as preparatory 
for the Gymnasia, that these schools had their own aim, to train the 
children of the people for their life work, and they ought not be 
hampered by their connection with the classical schools (the gym- 
nasia). His view was opposed, and yet a modification of it was 
adopted by the assembly, namely, that preparatory classes connected 
with the gymnasia should be established where need for them should 
appear. 

Perfect freedom was granted all members to express their views. 
Full advantage was taken of this freedom in. the debate concerning 
the introduction of the modern languages into the curriculum of the 
gymnasium — one of the keenest, most spirited debates on record. 
The section committee admitted the value of the modern languages, 
but urged that they should be elective for especially talented pupils, 
but not required of any. 

The more radical members contended that, while the classic train- 
ing was still valuable, modern developments in the means of com- 
munication, etc., had made a knowledge of the modern languages 



26 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

indispensable. This need not entail an overburdening of the students, 
they declared, for the strain upon the students was caused by too 
many subjects. They proposed more thorough training and few 
subjects. Group courses might be introduced, they said. 

The assembly voted that the modern languages should be, in 
general, elective, though, in special cases, they might be required. 
So the thin edge of the modern program was forced into the old 
uniform required system. 

The question of the introduction of drawing into the curriculum 
of the gymnasium was next taken up. After a lively discussion of 
the relative merits of freehand versus mechanical drawing, the 
meeting voted to introduce freehand drawing as a required subject 
for a maximum of three or a minimum of two hours per week. 

The subject of religious instruction in the gymnasium was discussed 
with the greatest earnestness. The topic was approached from 
various angles. Should religion be taught in the gymnasium at all ? 
Would it not be better to confine it to the home ? Since at 14, the 
youth, according to law, is entitled to choose for himself in religion, 
ought not instruction in that to be confined to the classes in which the 
pupils are under 14 years of age ? But in that case, will there not be 
a failure on the part of the school to do its duty in training in charac- 
ter which the State requires of all schools ? Ought, then, the training 
in religion to be anything more than training in Christian morals? 
In that case, is not one hour of instruction sufficient in the upper 
classes ? But is not that equivalent to putting a slur upon religion, 
especially since the subject of religion is not noted in the final exami- 
nation ? If religion is to be taught at all, is it not necessary to teach 
it, in every instance, in a sectarian way, i. e., Catholics, Protestants, 
and Jews, each in their own way according to their own beliefs ? 

The commission voted that religious instruction should be given in 
the upper, as well as in the lower classes, of the gymnasium; that in 
the upper classes one hour per week should be given to such in- 
struction. 

The commission also voted to extend the study of history up to the 
most recent events, and to extend considerably the scope of the 
geography instruction. 

Natural sciences afforded the sharpest discussion. There was a 
real tug of war between the strict classicists and the realists. Both 
groups agreed that the classic languages were the basis of the gym- 
nasium, and that general culture (Algemeine Bildung) was the aim 
toward which all study should be directed. The classicists admitted 
that natural science was in itself a most important subject, but they 
contended that the gymnasium was not just the place for it; that 
experience showed l:hat students who had a thorough classic training 
could, when later it became necessary, take up the sciences and their 



A FRENCH SURVEY. 27 

applications with greater ease and ability than those students who 
prematurely undertook to master those topics. Their opponents 
pointed to the necessity for an educated man to know the develop- 
ments in physical science, and to have some training in laboratory 
methods; they pointed to the success with which science was being 
taught in foreign secondary schools, and that such study was the 
more necessary in Austria as there were, relatively, so few industrial 
schools where science would naturally form part of the program. 

A Galician rural-school inspector (Mr. Czerkawski), who had evi- 
dently made a special study of pedagogy, quoted Herbart and Pesta- 
lozzi to prove that a topic should not be introduced into the curri- 
culum merely because it was useful in itself; it must be of greatest 
service in the attainment of the object for which the gymnasia were 
established. They must bear in mind, he said, that there were three, 
not two, stages of growth and development to be provided for, namely, 
first, childhood; second, period of puberty; and, third, youth. Ho- 
frath Ficker, director of the imperial bureau of statistics, declared 
that the organization of the schools was not to be like a metal garb 
which should remain the same forever, but it should form part of the 
life of the institution and grow and change with it. 

Another speaker declared that some time the impregnable classic 
structure of the gymnasium might tumble down; for ideas of what 
culture is, change from age to age. 

In the end after the longest and hardest debate of all, the realists 
won and the commission voted to extend the time for scientific study 
in all classes of the gymnasium. 

In this great struggle one reads between the lines that the con- 
servative force was that of the gymnasial faculties and that pro- 
gress was largely due to governmental encouragement. 

A FRENCH SURVEY. 

Enquete sur l'Enseignement Secondaire, Rapport General (Cham- 
bres des Deputes), Paris, 1899 (6 vols.). With a general 
introduction by M. Ribot, chairman of the commission. 

The survey discusses the subjects of administration of secondary 
schools (lycees and colleges), physical education, hygiene, training 
of teachers, courses of study, modern languages, drawing, final ex- 
aminations, supervision, national appropriations. 

"Less uniformity, less bureaucracy, a little liberty," is the general 
demand that is emphasized in this report, which is very critical of 
prevailing conditions. There is no life in the secondary schools 
because they lack real autonomy; the system suffers from over- 
centralized administration. The head masters have responsibility, 
but no initiative; the junior masters (tutors repetiteurs) are not 



28 SOME FOEEIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

respected; Latin has received too much attention. France has no 
lack of learned men, but it does lack engineers and men of affairs. 
It is outclassed by Germany in this respect; not that the classical 
course should be suppressed, but it should not be the exclusive kind 
of education; it should not prevent young people who have talent 
for practical affairs from receiving suitable instruction. Attendance 
at the lycees and the colleges does not increase. The increase hi cost 
of attending them has had something to do with this. Religious 
causes have also been at work. The State should respect the right 
of the individual to choose the instruction that he wishes for his 
children, but it must use all legitimate means of influence to get such 
instruction to conform to certain standards. 

The course of study suffers from uniformity. The modern world 
has an entirely different social and economic basis from that of 
the ancient world, and yet the dead languages continue to be the 
substance of our education. <= In this there is injury as well as danger, 
individual and national. Science has become of vast importance, 
and history and modern languages demand a place. Of course, 
we can not dispense with Latin, for it is the mother of French; 
and Roman life has contributed much to modern French life; and 
yet it is necessary to prepare for modern conditions. 

It is not necessary to overburden the pupils with too many new 
topics at the same time; a more rational method of teaching must 
be adopted; a better arrangement of subjects, according to the 
age and attainment of the pupils, and a proper utilization of their 
time. Besides, there are too many changes of teachers. The same 
teacher continued two or three years, with one set of pupils, can 
accomplish much more than is at present the case. 

Statistics prove that most of our graduates are headed for govern- 
mental positions. This is a grave danger. It is necessary to avoid 
it by preparing our young people for the other necessary occupations. 

A SURVEY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 

Commission on Primary, Secondary, Technical, and Other Branches 
of Education, Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, Sydney, 
1904 (378 pages). 

This survey treats mainly of secondary education. 

I. Great public importance of secondary education; not ade- 
quately recognized in New South Wales as it is, for example, in 
Europe and in America. 

II. It is necessary to consider first the relation of secondary 
education to the rest of the educational system, and especially to 
primary education; and in this regard we must remember that in 
New South Wales, as in England, there is no educational unity. 



A SWEDISH SURVEY. 29 

Primary education, very poor: (a) No kindergartens, (b) poor 
preparation of teachers, (c) unsatisfactory curriculum, (d) bad sys- 
tem of building schools, (e) poor hygienic arrangements. 

A good system of secondary education is needed to furnish (a) 
teachers for primary instruction and (b) leaders in the industrial 
and commercial progress of New South Wales — i. e., in competition 
especially with graduates of American secondary schools. (1) The 
first thing needed is coordination with primary and with higher 
schools. (2) A guiding program is also requisite. (3) Trained 
teachers much needed, as well as (4) scientific equipment. 

The surveyors conclude that, in general, the trend away from 
the mere classical training and toward scientific education is a 
thing to be encouraged, but first of all it is necessary to understand 
the defects of the New South Wales system and then set up an 
ideal and try to follow it. 

A SWEDISH SURVEY. 

Underdanigt Utlatande och For slag till Den Lagre Tekniska Un- 
dervisningens Ornande, 4 Oktober, 1907, Lanstidningens Tryck- 
eri, Orebro. 3 vols; vol. 1 — 447 pages; vol. 2 — 521 pages; 
vol. 3 — 424 pages. 

Report and Recommendations of the Committee Appointed by the 
King to Investigate the Status of Technical Instruction in 
Sweden. 

With the reforms of 1870, the lower technical instruction in Sweden 
received in the main its present form. Unlike Sweden, foreign 
countries have devoted much time and effort to the development of 
the lower technical instruction during the past few decades. The 
State aid for lower technical instruction in Baden amounts to 385 
crowns per 1,000 inhabitants, in Austria 283 crowns, in Prussia 
252 crowns, in the Netherlands 206 crowns, in Denmark 200 crowns, 
in Finland 149 crowns, in Norway 143 crowns, and in Sweden only 
88 crowns per 1,000 inhabitants each year. The vocational instruc- 
tion in the city of Munich, with a population of 560,000, costs each 
year about the same as the entire lower technical instruction in 
Sweden. 

In formulating the plan for the necessary changes and rearrange- 
ment of the lower technical instruction, the committee considered 
it important that the instruction should be arranged in such a way 
that there would be possibilities of development, and that the ma- 
jority of those who are engaged in the trades would be given an op- 
portunity to receive a technical education. 

According to the recommendations of the committee, the lower 
technical instruction in Sweden should comprise the following: 



30 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

Apprentice schools; trade schools; technical vocational schools; the 
Technical School in Stockholm (an institution giving instruction in 
handwork); the State Normal School for Vocational Instruction; 
the education board for the technical schools in the Kingdom. 

In order that the representatives of the trades and the industries 
might exert a greater influence on the development of the lower tech- 
nical schools, and therewith on the entire technical instruction, the 
committee urged that the lower technical institutions should con- 
tinue to be under the management and care of local boards. The 
committee also recommended that the industries should have a 
stronger representation in these local boards than they have had 

hitherto. 

A NEW ZEALAND SURVEY. 

Report of the Commission on Education in New Zealand, to the 
Governor of New Zealand, Wellington, 1912 (744 pages). 

This is an inquiry into the following topics: Cost of State educa- 
tion in primary, manual, technical, and secondary schools in its 
relation to efficiency; administration of central department, powers 
and rights of education boards, etc.; cost of manual and technical 
instruction; local responsibility to provide a part of it; consolidation 
of local governing boards; overlapping and duplication; finance of 
education boards; agricultural instruction and rural courses; vo- 
cational education; scholarships; general needs for progress, e. g., 
in administration, and coordination. 

The commission recommends a revision of the entire school sys- 
tem, primary, secondary, and technical, which should insure a maxi- 
mum of local interest and, at the same time, continuity of general 
administration. 

Among the weaknesses of the school system which should be over- 
come are: Lack of satisfactory administration and of proper aims and 
methods; lack of fairness in promotion of teachers; lack of suitable 
courses of study, of playgrounds, of rural training, and of proper 
coordination between primary, secondary, and higher education. 

The commission advises the appointment of a council to be com- 
posed of the minister of education, the director of education, the 
supervisor of technical education, two representatives of the pro- 
ducing industries of the Dominion, and 10 others, one of whom 
should be chosen by the staff of inspectors, one by each of the five 
education boards, two by the certificated teachers of primary schools, 
one by the certificated teachers of secondary schools, and one by 
the senate of the University of New Zealand. 

The commission further says that the number of teachers should 
be increased; better salaries offered to secure such increase; the 
consequent lowering of number of pupils per teacher; efficient 
teachers insured fairer opportunities of promotion; compulsory con- 



A CANADIAN SURVEY. 31 

tinuation classes in technical schools; overlapping should be entirely 
avoided; agricultural education should be greatly strengthened; con- 
tinuation classes in agriculture and dairy work in connection with 
district high schools should be encouraged; and the prospect of 
establishing an agricultural high school should be considered, and 
two agriculutral colleges ought to be established; the course of 
study should be enriched and the importance of oral and mental 
work emphasized; history, hitherto neglected, should receive proper 
attention, drawing should be simplified; the quality of supervising 
improved; physical instruction should have special attention; moral 
instruction should be given; nature study should be fostered; and 
boards of education should insist on medical and dental attention 
where needed. 

An opportunity should be given teachers to become original mem- 
bers of the superannuation fund. Parents who fail to send children 
to school should be liable to a fine; children should be kept from 
street trades, which interfere with their education and endanger 
their morals; and children should be prevented from loitering about 
the streets at night, and especially in the neighborhood of the theaters, 
picture shows, etc., when they should be at home and in bed. 

A CANADIAN SURVEY. 

Royal Commission (of Canada) on Industrial Training and Tech- 
nical Education, Published, Ottawa, 1913, 4 vols.; Vol. I — 437 
pages; Vol. II, to page 1011; Vol. Ill, to page 1633; Vol. IV, to 
page 2354. 

It treats of industrial training and technical education in rela- 
tion to — 

I. Elementary education. 
II. Secondary and higher education. 
III. Manual training, household science, etc. 
IV. National problems. 
V. Needs, duties, and rights of individuals. 
VI. Organization and administration. 
VII. Dominion development policy. 
VIII. Apprentices, foremen, and leaders. 
IX. Rural communities. 

X. Schools for housekeeping. 
XI. Industrial research. 
XII. Vocational guidance. 

XIII. Wider use of school plant. 

XIV. Continuation classes. 

The commission also gives information on the same topics in 
regard to England, Scotland, Ireland, Denmark, France, Germany, 
Switzerland, and the United States. 



32 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

This is a very thorough and well-balanced survey of the topics of 
which it treats. It is of especial interest in the United States because 
of the fact that the relation of the Dominion Government in regard to 
education in the various Provinces is very like that of our National 
Government in regard to education in the different States. The cor- 
dial good will with which all the Provinces indorsed this project of the 
Dominion reveals their judgment of the importance of industrial 
training to Canadian prosperity, as is indeed stated in a memorandum 
of the Dominion Minister of Labor: 

Industrial efficiency is all-important to the development of the Dominion, and to 
the promotion of the home and foreign trade of Canada in competition with other 
nations and can be best promoted by the adoption in Canada of the most advanced 
systems and methods of industrial training and technical education. 

The commissioners conceived it to be their duty — 
I. To ascertain the present equipment and also the needs of indus- 
trial training and technical education in Canada. 
II. To study the systems and methods of instruction in those topics 

in other countries. 
III. To formulate and express opinions in regard to the information 
thus acquired; and likewise to make definite recommendations 
to the Government. 
In the fulfillment of this duty they made, accordingly, a survey of 
Canadian industries and an educational survey of the schools. 

With a view to the former they made a survey of the needs of 
workers in — 

1. Manufacturing and other industries, e. g., of building construc- 
tion, boots and shoes, carriages and wagons, chemicals, clothing, 
electrical plants, foodstuffs, furniture, leather and rubber, metals, 
rolling mills, foundries, machine shops, printing and publishing, tex- 
tiles and clothing, wood and wooden wares, other industries and 
trades. 

2. Agriculture, live stock, dairying, fruit culture, fisheries, milling 
(including quarries), forestry. 

3. Commerce and transportation. 

4. Home-making and housekeeping, including house sanitation, 
domestic servants, care of children. 

It is clear then that the survey is of broad scope and practical 
nature. And not only is the scope of the work broad, but the various 
business topics are developed with a practical grasp of business devel- 
opment and at the same time with a strong hold of eduoational prin- 
ciples. 

Hence the commission considered (a) the growth of the different 
kinds of business, (b) where raw materials are obtained, (c) where 
products are marketed, (d) the supply of labor, skilled, unskilled, and 
apprentices, (e) child labor. 



A CANADIAN SURVEY. 33 

Regard was given also to the hygienic conditions of the homes of 
workers, as well as factory conditions, for it is clear that those matters 
have a bearing on industrial efficiency. 

The educational survey considered industrial training and technical 
education in (1) universities and colleges; (2) technical schools; 
(3) trade schools; (4) agricultural and extension work; (5) normal 
schools; (6) high schools, academies, etc., (a) elementary science, (b) 
rural science, (c) manual training, (d) domestic science; (7) elemen- 
tary schools, (a) manual training, (b) domestic science, (c) rural 
science, including school gardens and nature study; (8) evening 
schools, (a) elementary, (b) technical; (9) correspondence courses; 
(10) apprentice schools; (11) organized play and playground; (12) 
physical culture and drill. 

Research work, the need of it and provision for it, also received 
attention. 

The commissioners express their delight at the interest in education 
that they found everywhere; at the greatly increased expenditures 
that are made in behalf of education, and, particularly, at the effort 
focused on boys and girls between the ages of 14 and 18; and they 
note with especial pleasure that a general feature of school work in 
all progressive countries to-day is the provision for continuation 
classes, technical classes, and art classes for the pupils who leave the 
day schools at 14 years of age. The classes provided for this purpose 
in Germany and Switzerland they find especially worthy of praise; 
yet nowhere, least of all in the most advanced countries, is there any 
tendency to brag of what has been accomplished, or a tendency to 
rest satisfied with progress already made. 

I. The surveyors noted the fact that school authorities in other 
countries were much more apt than was the case in Canada to show 
to the visitors first of all the work of the elementary classes. This 
brought to attention the defects in the elementary classes in Canada, 
and the following recommendations were made : 

1. All children up to the age of 14 should receive a good elementary education. 

2. The experiences of the school should tend more directly toward the inculcation 
and conservation of a love of productive, constructive, and conserving labor. 

3. After 12 years of age, for the children whose parents expect them or desire them 
to follow manual occupations, the school work should have a vocational bearing. 

4. From this prevocational work, the commission believes, there would result (a) 
an awakened interest in manual occupations, (6) the aptitudes of pupils would be 
discovered, (c) the pupils would thus be guided into their life work. 

5. The children would thus wish to keep in touch with the schools. 

6. And the commission is of the opinion that the time and attention devoted to pre- 
vocational or trade-preparatory work in no way detracts from or hinders progress in 
general education of a cultural sort. They further maintain that the health of pupils 
must be carefully looked out for; that the harmonious growth of all their powers of 
body, mind, and spirit should be fostered; that they should learn to work as well as 



34 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

play with enjoyment, intelligence, skill, and energy; that they should be trained 
to habits of obedience, courtesy, and diligence; and that high ideals of conduct and 
character should be maintained. 

The belief is expressed that these new topics need not burden the 
time table, if studies are properly arranged and taught. 

The following conclusions are drawn from the study of foreign 
schools : 

That manual training should have a recognized place in the course of study from 
the kindergarten until the eleventh or twelfth year of age for cultural or self- 
realization purposes. In the later years this training is of special value in discover- 
ing the pupils' aptitudes and in developing skill. 

The amount of time that should be devoted to this topic it is difficult to estimate, 
but in general one might say it ought to be one-fourth of the school time from kinder- 
garten up to the age of 12. 

Manual training, as well as industrial training, is of value in that it tends to a fuller 
recognition of motive in school work; and manual training, besides, is valuable in 
training the faculties to meet the tilings and forces of the outer world. 

To meet the extra expense that would be incurred by conforming to these recom 
mendations, the commission urged that a parliamentary grant should provide the 
sum of $350,000 a year for 10 years, to be distributed among the Provinces in propor- 
tion to the population of each in aid of elementary education. 

II. Secondary schools in Canada have been much criticized. It 
has been said that their training is of use only for those who go to 
college ; that they give their pupils a disinclination to manual labor ; 
that they fail to interest the large number of students who have no 
taste for book-learning, but have ability in subjects that call for 
observation and original constructive talent, and that these pupils 
consequently leave school as soon as they can; that no provision is 
made for them in the way of part-time schooling or continuation 
classes, as is done elsewhere; and that for those students who go 
from the secondary schools to technical colleges no adequate prepa- 
ration has been provided, so that as a result they lose much time, 
although the laboratory method of teaching science that is now being 
introduced into the high schools has helped somewhat. 

The schools of applied science in Canada have the reputation of 
teaching their topics thoroughly. 

The commission concludes (1) that secondary vocational education 
should be provided for pupils who are to follow manual occupations, 
e. g., agriculture, housekeeping, or business. (2) The opportunities 
given such pupils should be as favorable as are furnished in the regular 
secondary schools for those who are to enter the learned professions. 
(3) Suitable part-time or continuation education should be provided 
for those who have gone to work. (4) Technical education for the 
preparation of technical engineers and teachers and principals of 
technical schools should be given, and some financial support should 
be provided, so that the fees for such students may not be prohibitive. 



A CANADIAN SURVEY. 35 

III. Manual Training, Nature Study, School Gardening, Household 
Science, Vocational Education. 

The term " manual training" is general and includes such terms 
as "educational handwork/' "constructive work," "hand and eye 
training," "manual arts," and "sloyd." Its value lies in the fact 
that it develops and coordinates all the powers through the accurate 
use of tools. Muscles, brain, and will grow strong together. 

Nature study, which is often taken to include school gardening, 
elementary agriculture, agricultural education, and rural education, 
aims rather to make the pupils acquainted with the phenomena of 
nature by observation and reasoning than to train them in productive 
management, and by its aid they may more easily pass to true agri- 
cultural vocational education. 

Household science covers the terms "domestic science," "domestic 
occupations," "household arts," "housekeeping," and "home eco- 
nomics." It is closely connected with nature study and manual 
training, and up to the eleventh year the term should mean practi- 
cally nothing else. A vocational motive may then appear. 

Vocational education "indicates the form of education which pro- 
vides definite training and definite knowledge expected to be useful 
in enabling an individual to carry on his vocation in a way most 
advantageous to the community and satisfactory- to himself." It 
includes six headings: (1) Professional, (2) industrial, (3) agricul- 
tural, (4) commercial, (5) marine, (6) housekeeping. Industrial 
training and technical education include all the six classes except a 
part of No. 1, namely, training for lawyers, doctors, clergymen, etc. 

Some persons would limit the terms "industrial training and tech- 
nical education"' to such training as looks especially to knowledge of 
and control of tools, machines, etc.; but in all countries visited by 
the commission a broader conception was in vogue. The towns vis- 
ited by the commission included under the head of industrial educa- 
tion training in languages, arithmetic, science, history, literature, 
usually physical culture and civics, and often singing. 

The terms "technical education" and "industrial training" shade 
into each other in meaning, but it may be said that when emphasis 
is laid on the handling of tools, materials, etc., the term to use is 
"industrial"; but when, on a knowledge of principles and their appli- 
cation, the word should be "technical." 

In the development of these types of education, the Macdonald 
funds have been of great benefit. 

IV. National Problems. 

Canada, larger in area than all Europe ; is great in natural resources 
of the farm, of the mine, of the sea; its possibilities are vast. But 
Canada's inheritance of good government and honorable life are 
more important than what nature has supplied. Education, then, is 



36 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

Deeded to develop the resources both for the comminuty aDd for the 
individual. The education must be practical, must develop a love 
for work and the habit of work; it must not overlook " culture," but — 

culture is the residuum in character — in body, in mind, and in spirit — after every 
completed cycle of an educational experience. 

It must not be forgotten that invigorating toil, invigorating bodily toil, is the only 
known road to health, strength, and happiness. Agri-culture, industrial culture, 
technical culture, liberal culture, have no origin in idleness, indolence, or sloth, 
which make for the corrosion of all the vigors of the physical, mental, and moral 
nature. 

The steps in an educational experience are: Observing, reflecting on ideas, planning 
toward expression, feeling and managing into some form of expression. 

The nation depends on the individual, and his development can be 
secured by a proper system of technical education and industrial 
training. 

V. The Needs, Duties, and Eights of Individuals. 

In the struggle of modern industry to produce goods cheaply in 
order to make profits, three elements are of importance — raw mate- 
rials, labor-saving machinery, and organization. So much attention 
has been given to these that their effect on the individual worker is 
apt to be overlooked. But it is necessary to keep in mind the value 
of the individual, for he is the most important asset of the State. 
j The hope of civilization consists in (1) planning and working for 
the benefit and happiness of the home and individual, (2) increasing 
wealth and control of natural forces, (3) increasing friendship, (4) 
enlarging all the powers of individuals, (5) giving more opportunities 
for right living, (6) the forming of good habits and character, (7) the 
protection of children, (8) minimizing ignorance, disease, vice, etc. 
Modern industrial conditions have in many ways militated against all 
of these requirements. Even women and girls are absorbed in the 
factory system. More service from the school is needed to offset 
these tendencies. 

VI. Organization and Administration of Industrial Training and 
Technical Education. 

The commission recommends that those subjects should (1) be 
put under provincial control; (2) they should receive financial 
support from individuals, local communities, the Provinces and from 
the Dominion; (3) individuals who represent local industries, etc., 
should participate in the management; (4) opportunity for such 
education for those who have gone to work should be given; (5) 
equality in opportunity for all should be maintained; (6) cordial 
cooperation with existing systems of education must be kept up. 

The aims of technical education and industrial training are: 

1. The preservation of health and vigor. 

2. Formation of good habits. 

3. The development of the sense of responsibility and duty. 



A CANADIAN SURVEY. 37 

4. The preparation of the body, mind, and spirit for following some useful occu- 
pation. 

5. The cultivation of the mental powers, the acquisition of knowledge and the 
development of the scientific spirit, with direct reference to the occupation. 

6. The promotion of good will and the desire and ability to cooperate with others. 

7. The maintenance of standards and ideals. 

8. As all-inclusive and ultimate, the perfecting of the human spirit, the improve- 
ment of the quality of life itself, and the betterment of the conditions of labor, leisure, 
and living. 

The means by which these ends are to be obtained are: 

1. The discipline which comes from interest in work and from cooperation with 
others in educational classes till at least 17 years of age. 

2. The conservation of the love of work and the satisfaction of doing it well. 

3. The acquisition of technical, scientific knowledge. 

4. The preservation and strengthening of a spirit of willingness to accept and fill 
one's place in organized society which implies relative positions and relative degrees 
of authority. 

But it must be borne in mind that to bring these results about, the 
classes and courses must be made attractive to young people, and 
must be related to the daily life and occupations of the pupils; and, 
furthermore, they must meet individual, industrial, and national 
needs. 

VII. A Dominion Development Policy. 

It will be needful to formulate and develop plans (a) for those who 
are to continue at school in urban communities; (b) for those who 
have gone to work in urban communities; and similar provisions for 
rural communities. 

For those who are to continue at school in urban communities, the 
commissioners recommended : 

1. Intermediate industrial schools. 

2. Coordinated technical classes. 

3. Technical high schools. 

4. Apprentice schools. 

5. Industrial and technical institutes. 

6. Technical schools for home economics and college for fine arts. 

While for those who have gone to work in urban communities, the 
following system is advised: 

1. Continuation classes. 

2. Coordinated technical schools. 

3. Middle technical schools. 

4. Apprentice classes in workshops. 

5. Industrial and technical institutes. 

6. Extension lectures and correspondence courses. 

For rural districts these schools are proposed : 

1. Intermediate rural schools. 

2. Rural high schools. 

3. Continuation agricultural classes. 



38 SOME FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS. 

4. Continuation housekeeping classes. 

5. County or district agricultural schools. 

6. Young people's social service schools. 

7. Schools for agricultural apprentices. 

8. Colleges for agricultural study and home economics. 

9. Correspondence courses. 

This plan should be worked out and applied in such a way as to 
receive public confidence, public interest, and cooperation, and at the 
same time provincial control, local initiative, and local responsibility 
be maintained and developed. And for these purposes the Canadian 
Parliament should make a grant of $3,000,000 each year for 10 years, 
and this fund should be distributed equitably among the Provinces. 

VIII. Apprentices, Foremen, and Leaders. 

In Germany, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, and elsewhere the avowed aim 
of industrial training and technical education is not only to increase the working or 
productive efficiency of the pupil, but to develop all his powers, to prepare him for 
citizenship, to improve the industries, and to render the conditions of living more 
satisfactory. The interests of the pupils, parents, employers, the community, and 
the State are all considered. Even when compulsory attendance at continuation 
schools is exacted, there is a definite purpose of using the schools as a means to raise 
the whole community to a higher level of intelligence, ability, and good will. 

The tendency of manufacturers is to call for the service of machine 
tenders instead of all-round mechanics ; in other words, the tendency 
is to make workmen the adjuncts of machines. To offset this ten- 
dency, the school must supplement the work of the shop ; in supplying 
the means of greater efficiency it should thereby increase the pupil's 
pride in his work, and so his pride in citizenship would be stimulated. 
Here lies the opportunity to make plain to him his relation to other 
workmen, and to the community and State as well. For this work 
the teacher needs special preparation, for industrial training alone 
may merely promote the greedy side of man's nature; and refining 
influences and sympathies, such as may be stimulated by good litera- 
ture, for example, are needed, and a deep mastery of the principles of 
civics is essential. Such cooperation between the school and shop 
must be established as will help to develop the leaders, foremen, 
superintendents, and the like. 

IX. Education for Rural Communities. 

This is essential, for (1) country life contributes to the virility of the 
race; (2) agriculture is a means of creating wealth; (3) it furnishes a 
basis for manufacturing and other forms of business; (4) it will offset 
the increased cost of living. 

Therefore it is highly desirable to teach children to love nature and 
to take an intelligent interest in rural pursuits. So lessons should be 
given in regard to cattle, sheep, farm machinery, poultry, soils, fer- 
tilizers, gardens, crops, foods, trees, flowers, and birds, and the Eng- 
lish language should be cultivated as a means to develop this 
interest. 



A CANADIAN" SUEVEY. 39 

The consolidation of rural schools, as in parts of the United States, 
is a practical means for betterment. But as far as farming is con- 
cerned, it must be remembered that the proper place to learn farming 
is a farm, managed as a business concern to provide a living and com- 
petence for the owner or worker. For this purpose, farm schools 
which realize farm conditions as nearly as possible are advantageous. 

X. Good homes furnish the support of community, State, and civili- 
zation. Therefore girls should receive opportunity to develop voca- 
tional ability for housekeeping and home-making. 

Lectures, demonstrations, institutes prove valuable, for example, 
in teaching the subjects of foodstuffs and their preparation, nursing, 
domestic science, and industry. Domestic service might be estab- 
lished on a self-respecting basis. 

XI. Industrial Research. 

To-day manufacturers need experts, especially chemists, to show 
them how to eliminate waste and increase efficiency. A study of what 
Dr. Robert K. Duncan has accomplished in the Universities of Pitts- 
burgh and Kansas is very suggestive. The plan provides for the 
creation and maintenance of industrial fellowships at those universi- 
ties. The plan is briefly this: 

1. The university provides the laboratory accommodations and selects the investi- 
gators. 

2. The manufacturer indicates the topic to be investigated and supplies the funds. 

3. Any discoveries made become the propertv of the manufacturer, subject to 
certain conditions. 

XII. Vocational Guidance. 

This does not mean helping boys and girls to get jobs; it does not 
mean choosing vocations for them; it does mean the bringing to 
bear of organized information and organized common sense on the 
choice of a vocation. Without it, there is untold loss to the indi- 
vidual, to the community, and to the State, because of maladjust- 
ment of talents to work. So, much cooperation is necessary. The 
methods in use in Scotland, in New York, and in Boston give much in 
the way of suggestion. 

XIII. Wider Use of School Plant. 

The movement to make wider use of the school plant has been 
especially marked in Buffalo, N. Y.; New York City; Rochester, 
N. Y.; and at Ottawa, Ontario. Evening schools, continuation 
classes, vocation schools, free lecture courses, social-center work, 
recreation clubs, moving-picture shows, all furnish valuable means 
for public education. 

XIV. Compulsory Attendance at Continuation Classes after the 
Age of 14. 

The hearty cooperation of State and individual are requisite to make 
continuation schools a success, as they have been in Germany, Eng- 
land, Scotland, and in some States of the United States. 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

[Note.— With the exceptions indicated, the documents named below will be sent free of charge upon 
application to the Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Those marked with an asterisk (*) 
are no longer available for free distribution, but may be had of the Superintendent of Documents Govern- 
ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C, upon payment of the price stated. Remittances shouldflR made 
in coin, currency, or money order. Stamps are not accepted. Numbers omitted are out of print.] 

1906. 

*No. 3. State school systems: Legislation and judicial decisions relating to public education, Oct. 1, 1904, 
to Oct. 1, 1906. Edward C. Elliott. 15 cts. 

1908. 

♦No. 5. Education in Formosa. Julean H> Arnold. 10 cts. 

♦No. 6. The apprenticeship system in its relation to industrial education. Carroll D. Wright. 15 cts. 
No. 8. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by 
the State, 1907-8. 

1909. 

♦No. 1. Facilities for study and research in the offices of the United States Government in Washington. 

Arthur T. Hadley. 10 cts. 
No. 2. Admission of Chinese students to American colleges. John Fryer. 
♦No. 3. Daily meals of school children. Caroline L. Hunt. 10 cts. 
No. 6. Statistics of public, society, and school libraries in 1908. 
♦No. 6. Instruction in the fine and manual arts in the United States. A statistical monograph. Henry 

T. Bailey. 15 cts. 
No. 7. Index to the Reports of the Commissioner of Education, 1867-1907. 
♦No. 8. A teacher's professional library. Classified list of 100 titles. 5 cts. 
♦No. 9. Bibliography of education for 1908-9. 10 cts. 
No. 10. Education for efficiency in railroad service. J. Shirley Eaton. 

♦No. 11. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by 
the State, 1908-9. 5 cts. 

1910. 

♦No. 1. The movement for reform in the teaching of religion in the public schools of Saxony. Arley B. 

Show. 5 cts. 
No. 2. State school systems: III. Legislation and judicial decisions relating to public education, Oct. 1, 

1908, to Oct. 1, 1909. Edward C. Elliott. 
♦No. 5. American sehoolhouses. Fletcher B. Dresslar. 75 cts. 

1911. 

♦No. 1. Bibliography of science teaching. 5 cts. 

♦No. 2. Opportunities for graduate study in agriculture in the United States. A. C. Monahan. 5 cts. 

♦No. 3. Agencies for the improvement of teachers in service. William C. Ruediger. 15 cts. 

♦No. 4. Report of the commission appointed to study the system of education in the public schools of 

Baltimore. 10 cts. 
♦No. 5. Age and grade census of schools and colleges. George D. Strayer. 10 cts. 
♦No. 6. Graduate work in mathematics in universities and in other institutions of like grade in the United 

States. 5 cts. 
No. 7. Undergraduate work in mathematics in colleges and universities. 
No. 9. Mathematics in the technological schools of collegiate grade in the United States. 
♦No. 13. Mathematics in the elementary schools of the United States. 15 cts. 
♦No. 14. Provision for exceptional children in the public schools. J. H. Van Sickle, Lightner Witmer, 

and Leonard P. Ayres. 10 cts. 
♦No. 15. Educational system 'of China as recently reconstructed. Harry E. King. 10 cts. 
No. 19. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by 
the State, 1910-11. 

1912. 

♦No. 1. A course of study for the preparation of rural-school teachers. F. Mutchler and W. J. Craig. 5 cts. 

♦No. 3. Report of committee on uniform records and reports. 5 cts. 

♦No. 4. Mathematics in technical secondary schools in the United States. 5 cts. 

♦No. 5. A study of expenses of city school systems. Harlan Updegraff. 10 cts. 



II BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF EDUCATION. 

*No. 6. Agricultural education in secondary schools. 10 cts. 

♦No. 7. Educational status of nursing. M. Adelaide Nutting. 10 cts. 

*No. S. Peace day. Fannie Fern Andrews. 5 cts. [ Later publication, 1913, No. 12.] 

♦No. 9. Country schools for city boys. William S. Myers. 10 cts. 

No. 11. Current educational topics, No. 1. 

*No. 13. Influences tending to improve the work of the teacher of mathematics. 5 cts. 
*No. 14. Report of the American commissioners of the international commission on the teaching of mathe- 
matics. 10 cts. 
*No. 17. The Montessori system of education. Anna T. Smith. 5 cts. 
*No. 18. Teaching language through agriculture and domestic science. M. A. Leiper. 5 cts. 
*No. 19. Professional distribution of college and university graduates. Bailey B. Burritt. 10 cts. 

No. 22. Public and private high schools. 
*No. 23. Special collections in libraries in the United States. W. D. Johnston and I. G. Mudge. 10 cts. 

No. 26. Bibliography of child study for the years 1910-11. 

No. 27. History of public-school education in Arkansas. Stephen B. Weeks. 
*No. 28. Cultivating school grounds in Wake County, N. C. Zebulon Judd. 5 cts. 

No. 29. Bibliography of the teaching of mathematics, 1900-1912. D. E. Smith and C. Goldziher. 

No. 30. Latin-American universities and special schools. Edgar E. Brandon. 

1913. 

No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1913. 

*No. 2. Training courses for rural teachers. A. C. Monahan and R. H. Wright. 5 cts. • 

*No. 3. The teaching of modern languages in the United States. Charles H. Handschin. 15 cts. 
*No. 4. Present standards of higher education in the United States. George E. MacLean. 20 cts. 

No. 5. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1913. 
*No. 6. Agricultural instruction in high schools. C. H. Robison and F. B. Jenks. 10 cts. 
*No. 7. College entrance requirements. Clarence D. Kingsley. 15 cts. 
*No. 8. The status of rural education in the United States. A. C. Monahan. 15 cts. 

No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1913. 
*No. 12. The promotion of peace. Fannie Fern Andrews. 10 cts. 
*No. 13. Standards and tests for measuring the efficiency of schools or systems of schools. 5 cts. 

No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1913. 
*No. 16. Bibliography of medical inspection and health supervision. 15 cts. 

*No. 18. The fifteenth international congress on hygiene and demography. Fletcher B. Dresslar. 10 cts. 
*No. 19. German industrial education and its lessons for the United States. Holmes Beckwith. 
*No. 20. Illiteracy in the United States. 10 cts. 

No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications, June, 1913. 
*No. 22. Bibliography of industrial, vocational, and trade education. 10 cts. 
*No. 23. The Georgia club at the State Normal School, Athens, Ga., for the study of rural sociology. E. C. 

Branson. 10 cts. 
*No. 24. A comparison of public education in Germany and in the United States. Georg Kerschensteiner. 

5 cts. 
*No. 25. Industrial education in Columbus, Ga. Roland B. Daniel. 5 cts. 
*No. 26. Good roads arbor day. Susan B. Sipe. 10 cts. 

*No. 28. Expressions on education by American statesmen and publicists. 5 cts. 
*No. 29. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. Kendric C. Babcock. 10 cts. 
*No. 30. Education in the South. 10 cts. 
*No. 31. Special features in city school systems. 10 cts. 

No. 32. Educational survey of Montgomery County, Md. 
*No. 34. Pension systems in Great Britain. Raymond W. Sies. 10 cts. 
*No. 35. A list of books suited to a high-school library. 15 cts. 
*No. 36. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska, 1911-12. 10 cts. 

No. 37. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1913. 
*No. 38. Economy of time in education. 10 cts. 

No. 39. Elementary industrial school of Cleveland, Ohio. W. N. Hailmann. 
*No. 40. The reorganized school playground. Henry S. Curtis. 10 cts. 
*No. 41. The reorganization of secondary education. 10 cts. 

No. 42. An experimental rural school at Winthrop College. H. S. Browne. 
*No. 43. Agriculture and rural-life day; material for its observance. Eugene C. Brooks. 10 cts. 
*No. 44. Organized health work in schools. E. B. Hoag. 10 cts. 

No. 45. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1913. 
*No. 46. Educational directory, 1913. 15 cts. 

*No. 47. Teaching material in Government publications. F. K. Noyes. 10 cts. 
*No. 48. School hygiene. W. Carson Ryan, jr. 15 cts. 

No. 49. The Farragut School, a Tennessee country-life high school. A. C. Monahan and Adams Phillips. 
*No. 50. The Fitchburg plan of cooperative industrial education. M. R. McCann. 10 cts. 
*No. 51. Education of the immigrant. 10 cts. 



BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. HI 

*No. 52. Sanitary schoolhouses. Legal requirements in Indiana and Ohio. 5 cts. 
No. 53. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1913. 
No. 54. Consular reports on industrial education in Germany. 
No. 55. Legislation and judicial decisions relating to education, October 1, 1909, to October 1, 1912. James 

C. Boykin and William R. Hood. 
No. 58. Educational system of rural Denmark. Harold W. Foght. 
No. 59. Bibliography of education for 1910-11. 
No. 60. Statistics of State universities and other institutions of higher education partially supported by 

the State, 1912-13. 

1914. 

*No. 1. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1914. 5 cts. 

No. 2. Compulsory school attendance. 
*No. 3. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1914. 5 cts. 

No. 4. The school and the start in life. Meyer Bloomfield. 

No. 5. The folk high schools of Denmark. L. L. Friend. 

No. 6. Kindergartens in the United States. 

No. 7. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1914. 
*No. 8. The Massachusetts home-project plan of vocational agricultural education. R.W.Stimson. 15 cts. 

No. 9. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1914. 

No. 10. Physical growth and school progress. B. T. Baldwin. 
*No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1914. 5 cts. 
*No. 12. Rural schoolhouses and grounds. F. B. Dresslar. 50 cts. 

No. 13. Present status of drawing and art in the elementary and secondary schools of the United States. 
Royal B. Farnum. 

No. 14. Vocational guidance. 

No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications. Index. 

No. 16. The tangible rewards of teaching. James C. Boykin and Roberta King. 

No. 17. Sanitary survey of the schools of Orange County, Va. Roy K. Flannagan. 

No. 18. The public school system of Gary, Ind. William P. Burris. 

No. 19. University extension in the United States. Louis E. Reber. 

No. 20. The rural school and hookworm disease. J. A. Ferrell. 

No. 21. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1914. 

No. 22. The Danish folk high schools. H. W. Foght. 

No. 23. Some trade schools in Europe. Frank L. Glynn. 

No. 24. Danish elementary rural schools. H. W. Foght. 

No. 25. Important features in rural school improvement. W. T. Hodges. 

No. 26. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1914. 
*No. 27. Agricultural teaching. 15 cts. 

No. 28. The Montessori method and the kindergarten. Elizabeth Harrison. 

No. 29. The kindergarten in benevolent institutions. 
*No. 30. Consolidation of rural schools and transportation of pupils at public expense. A. C. Monahan. 

25 cts. 
*No. 31. Report on the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska. 25 cts. 

No. 32. Bibliography of the relation of secondary schools to higher education. R. L. Walkley. 

No. 33. Music in the public schools. Will Earhart. 

No. 34. Library instruction in universities, colleges, and normal schools. Henry R. Evans. 

No. 35. The training of teachers in England, Scotland, and Germany. Charles H. Judd. 
*No. 36. Education for the home — Part I. General statement. B. R. Andrews. 10 cts. 
*No. 37. Education for the home— Part II. State legislation, schools, agencies. B. R. Andrews. 30 cts. 

No. 38. Education for the home— Part III. Colleges and universities. B. R. Andrews. 

No. 39. Education for the home— Part IV. Bibliography, list of schools. B. R. Andrews. 

No. 40. Care of the health of boys in Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. 

No. 41. Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1914. 

No. 42. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1914. 

No. 43. Educational directory, 1914-15. 

No. 44. County-unit organization for the administration of rural schools. A. C. Monahan. 

No. 45. Curricula in mathematics. J. C. Brown. 

No. 46. School savings banks. Mrs. Sara L. Overholtzer. 

No. 47. City training schools for teachers. Frank A. Manny. 

No. 48. The educational museum of the St. Louis public schools. C. G. Rathman. 

No. 49. Efficiency and preparation of rural-school teachers. H. W. Foght. 

No. 50. Statistics of State universities and State colleges. 

1915. 

No. 1. Cooking in the vocational school. Iris P. O'Leary. 

No. 2. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1915. 



IV BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF EDUCATION. 

No. 3. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1915. 

No. 4. The health of school children. W. H. Heck. 

No. 5. Organization of State departments of education. A. C. Monahan. 

No. 6. A study of the colleges and high schools in the North Central Association. 

No. 7. Accredited secondary schools in the United States. Samuel P. Capen. 

No. 8. Present status of the honor system in colleges and universities. Bird T. Baldwin. 

No. 9. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1915. 

No. 10. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1915. 

No. 11. A statistical study of the public school systems of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Nor- 
man Frost. 

No. 12. History of public school education in Alabama. Stephen B. Weeks. 

No. 13. The schoolhouse as the polling place. E. J. Ward. 

No. 14. Monthly record of current educational publications, May, 1915. 

No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications. Index, Feb., 1914- Jan., 1915. 

No. 16. Monthly record of current educational publications, June, 1915. 

No. 17. Civic education in elementary schools as illustrated in Indianapolis. Arthur W. Dunn. 

No. 18. Legal education in Great Britain. H. S. Richards. 

No. 19. Statistics of agricultural, manual training, and industrial schools, 1913-14. 

No. 20. The rural school system of Minnesota. H. W. Foght. 

No. 21. Schoolhouse sanitation. William A. Cook. 

No. 22. State versus local control of elementary education. T. L. MacDoweU. 

No. 23. The teaching of community civics. 

No. 24. Adjustment between kindergarten and first grade. Luella A. Palmer. 

No. 25. Public, society, and school libraries. 

No. 26. Secondary schools in the States of Central America, South America, and the West Indies. Anna 
T. Smith. 

No. 27. Opportunities for foreign students at colleges and universities in the United States. Samuel P. 
Capen. 

No. 28. The extension of public education. Clarence A. Perry. 

No. 29. The truant problem and the parental school. James S. Hiatt. 

No. 30. Bibliography of education for 1911-12. 

No. 31. A comparative study of the salaries of teachers and school officers. 

No. 32. The school system of Ontario. H. W. Foght. 

No. 33. Problems of vocational education in Germany. George E. Myers. 

No. 34. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1915. 

No. 35. Mathematics in the lower and middle commercial and industrial schools. E. H. Taylor. 

No. 36. Free textbooks and State uniformity. A. C. Monahan. 



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